Psychology 9990/32 May/June 2020: question paper and mark scheme

Mark scheme

1(a) Outline one biomedical/genetic explanation of a phobia. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: The explanation is that we are prepared to fear certain situations/objects that might pose a threat to survival such as dangerous animals/situations. This has been passed on from one generation to the next via DNA. (2 marks) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 1(b) Describe one study about classical conditioning of a phobia, e.g. the 4 study of little Albert. Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: 9-month-old baby showed no response to the unconditioned stimulus, a white rat, at the start of the study. (1). Watson and Raynor banged an iron bar behind Little Albert when he touched the white rat and little Albert would cry (the unconditioned response). (1) Very soon, little Albert would cry when presented with the conditioned stimulus, a white rat, (1) which shows he learned to be afraid of it through the process of operant conditioning. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 1(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study you described in 6 (b). Likely strengths include: • Strengths of longitudinal study e.g. can investigate change over time. • Explanatory power of classical conditioning • Strengths of qualitative data e.g. in-depth data • Strengths of laboratory environment. (e.g. reliability, control) Likely weaknesses include: • Generalisability as just one participant • Ethical issues of teaching a baby a phobia • Weaknesses of qualitative data e.g. cannot easily make comparisons from the beginning of the conditioning to the end of the conditioning; cannot use statistical tests to support conclusions • Reductionist and deterministic view of how phobias develop • Weaknesses of laboratory environment e.g. ecological validity Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Mark scheme

2(a) Describe the treatment and management of depression. 8 Treatment and management of depression, including the following: • Biological: chemical/drugs (MAO, SSRIs) • Electro-convulsive therapy • Cognitive restructuring (Beck, 1979) • Rational emotive behaviour therapy (Ellis, 1962) Biological: chemical/drugs (MAO, SSRIs) MAO – older antidepressants not frequently used today. Inhibit monoamine oxidase. This is responsible for breaking down norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. The other more common medication prescribed is selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). These can help improve depression by increasing the levels of a chemical called serotonin in the brain. This can occur in two ways as the SSRI will increase the amount of serotonin in the blood stream as well as prevent it being reabsorbed and broken down once it crosses a synapse in the brain. Electro-convulsive therapy Involves passing electricity through the brain to induce a seizure. Can be bilateral or unilateral. The electric current is applied once the patient has been sedated. The seizure is monitored by the doctor and can last up to a minute. The patient is given 6 to 12 sessions over a number of weeks. Cognitive restructuring (Beck, 1979) This is where the patient participates in a number of therapy sessions over weeks and/or months to alleviate their symptoms of depression. As it is believed the depressive symptoms are due to faulty thinking the therapist will help the patient to identify their faulty thinking and then correct these thinking patterns to more helpful ways of viewing themselves, the world and the future. Initially the patient and therapist will identify what the thinking patterns are, and the patient will be helped to come up with alternative thoughts. The patient then goes away between sessions and practices these alternative thoughts which should then lead to more helpful behaviours. Rational emotive behaviour therapy (Ellis, 1962) This follows the ABC model: Activating agent – what is the behaviour and/or attitude of the patient towards events in their lives. Beliefs – what is the belief of the patient toward the event. Cognitive – what types of thoughts does the patient have with regard to the event. Ellis believes if a person has constant negative beliefs about events in their life, they are likely to suffer from depression. The goal of therapy is to identify the unhelpful thoughts and replace them with more rational and constructive thoughts. The patient will go away between sessions and practice developing more helpful thoughts about life experiences. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 2(b) Evaluate the treatment and management of depression, including a 10 discussion of nature versus nurture. • Named issue – Nature vs nurture e.g. Biochemical treatment based on explanation that could be considered to be due to nature – the imbalance of serotonin could be inherited or it could be due to nurture due to environmental factors (e.g. life experiences). Difficult to determine if nature or nurture due to not testing the serotonin in the patient at birth. A range of other issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Application of psychology to everyday life (with reference to treatments) • Effectiveness of different treatments • Reductionism • Determinism • Appropriateness of treatments • Cost of treatments. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Mark scheme

3(a) Explain what is meant by ‘persuasive techniques’ used in advertising. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: This is where the advertiser tries to convince a potential customer to purchase a product (1) that they might be slightly uncertain (or even very uncertain) that they want to buy.(1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited (e.g. any model of persuasion that is linked to advertising). 3(b) Describe the AIDA model of advertising. 4 Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Attention – Needs to grab the attention of the customer. (1) Interest – Once attention is gained, the customers should want to know more about the product and the advertisement needs to maintain interest to keep the customer looking at the advertisement. (1) Desire – In the desire stage, the objective is to show the customer how the product or service can solve their problem. (1) Action – Getting the customer to take action as quickly as possible to go and purchase the product. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 3(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the AIDA model and 6 one other model of advertising. Likely similarities (s) and differences (d) will likely be to the hierarchy of effects model. Can credit comparison to other models such as the Yale model of communication, TIREA, REAN, NAITDASE etc. Comparison points could include: • Application of the model in advertising (s/d) • Ethnocentrism/cultural bias of the models (s) • Temporal validity of the models (s/d) • Deterministic nature of the models (s) • Situational vs individual explanation of the models (s/d) • Appropriateness of the model to advertising (s/d) • Both models can be tested in research (s). For example: Similarity Both the AIDA model and the hierarchy of effects model have practical applications. Both models are useful to companies to improve their advertising. The models can be used at the planning stage of advertising where the company needs to make sure the advert gets the attention of the consumer. This would be at the awareness stage in the hierarchy of effects model and the awareness and interest stage in the AIDA model. Difference The hierarchy of effects model has two stages for convincing the customer to buy a product whereas the AIDA model has one. The AIDA model has the stage ‘desire’ where the advertising increases the desire for the product. But the hierarchy of effects model is more holistic as it recognises the complexities of increasing the customer’s desire for a product. Therefore this model has two stages – preference and conviction. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will include one similarity and one difference. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will include one appropriate similarity in detail or one appropriate difference in detail. OR one similarity and one difference in less detail. • Candidates will provide a good explanation. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a similarity and/or difference. This could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. 3(c) Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited

Mark scheme

4(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about retail/leisure 8 environment design. Retail/leisure environmental design, including the following: • retail store architecture (Turley and Milliman, 2000) • leisure environments (Finlay et al., 2006) • store interior layout (Vrechopoulos, 2004) Turley and Milliman Reviewed 60 studies about atmospheric effects on buyer/shopper behaviour. – found it is possible to create atmospheres which influence consumer spending. Variables included – human, point of purchase and decoration, external variables, internal variables and layout and design variables. Finlay et al. Two casino designs were investigated: the Krane's playground model and the Friedman model. Measures of emotional reactions to the casinos were collected from 22 participants who had gambled in all six casinos. The Kranes-type casinos had significantly higher ratings than the Friedman-type casinos on pleasure and restoration. Vrechopoulos Aim was to investigate different layouts in virtual reality stores to investigate which virtual layouts would have the most positive effects on consumers. The paper reports on an experimental investigation into the use of three different layouts in online grocery retailing: freeform, grid, and racetrack. 120 participants in Greece and the UK participated in a laboratory experiment: they were given a planned shopping task with money to spend, and performed their shopping through a virtual store with layout as the manipulated variable. The results show that layout significantly affects online consumer behaviour, • Free-form was easiest to find items from list and most entertaining to use • Grid was the easiest to use • Racetrack and freeform engaged the consumer for the longest. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 4(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about retail/leisure 10 environmental design, including a discussion about demand characteristics. • Named issue – demand characteristics Demand characteristics decrease the validity of the study, however, difficult to avoid in studies which are in a laboratory environment. In order to meet ethical guidelines, the researchers must get informed consent which can lead to demand characteristics. The Finlay et al. study could have more demand characteristics as the participants knew they were in a study and that it was to do with emotional reactions to casinos. They may have selected responses about their emotions that suited the study rather than stating how they really felt. The Vrechopoulos study may not have shown as many demand characteristics because although the participants knew they were in a study, it was an independent measures design so they were unlikely to be aware of the aim or what the other conditions were. Therefore it would have been more unlikely for the participants to change their behaviour based on the aims of the study. Turley was also less likely to suffer from demand characteristics as it is likely within the 60 studies that they reviewed many of the participants in these studies did not know the aims of the study. However, this is not clear in the study and this could be argued by the candidate as well. A range of other issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Strengths and weaknesses of self-reports • Generalisability • Usefulness/practical applications • Situational/individual explanations • Ethics. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Mark scheme

5(a) Explain what is meant by ‘psychogenic pain’. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: ‘Psychogenic pain’ is also called phantom limb pain (1). It is a physical pain that is caused, increased, or prolonged by mental/emotional factors (1), or behavioural factors (1). Back pain, stomach pain and headaches are common types. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 5(b) Describe the gate control theory of pain (Melzack, 1965). 4 Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Pain depends on the two systems reacting together to a stimulus. (1) A message is received by the PNS but must be intense enough to travel to the CNS and eventually be registered by the brain. (1) Before the messages can reach the brain they encounter ‘nerve gates’ in the spinal cord which may open or close depending on factors such as instructions coming down from the brain. (1) If the gates open, the signal can reach the brain and pain is experienced. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 5(c) Explain two strengths of the gate control theory. 6 Likely strengths could be: • Detailed explanation of the experience of pain (holistic) • Useful/practical applications • No cultural bias/ethnocentrism • Supports both sides of the nature vs nurture debate • Explanatory power. e.g. Useful/practical applications as practitioners can use this theory to help control a patient’s pain. Medications can be developed that target the gate to prevent pain signals from reaching the brain. Leads to a better quality of life for patients as pain is reduced. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss two appropriate strengths. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one appropriate strength in detail or two less detail. • Candidates will provide a good explanation. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion of one or more strengths. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Mark scheme

6(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring stress. 8 Measuring stress, including the following: • physiological measures: recording devices and sample tests (Wang et al., 2005, Evans and Wener, 2007) • psychological measures: self-report questionnaires (Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Friedman and Rosenman, 1974) Physiological measures: Recording devices and sample tests (Wang et al., 2005, Evans and Wener, 2007 Recording device (fMRI) An fMRI measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. The participant or patient might be asked to do a control task and then a stressful task in order to see the changes in blood flow in the brain. Alternatively, a control group of non-stressed participants (assessed using a different physiological measure or a questionnaire) could be compared to participants who are stressed. It can then be inferred that any differences have been caused by stress. Wang et al. (2005) 32 participants with 25 in stress condition and 7 in control. 2 were excluded due to incomplete data. All native English speakers and screened for history of neurologic and psychiatric disease. Asked to do a mental arithmetic task while in an fMRI. Prompted to restart if they made a mistake and also prompted to work quickly. High stress was preceded with a low stress condition where participants counted backwards from 1000. Self-reports were taken of anxiety and stress, plus heart rate and a saliva sample. They found the stress condition showed more negative emotions (mild to moderate levels) and the ventral right prefrontal cortex plays a key role in the central stress response. Evans and Wener (2007) 139 adult commuters. Salivatory cortisol measured. Once during the morning commute and once at a weekend at home. Mood assessed by 5-point semantic differential scale during morning commute. Motivation measured at the end of the commute via persistence on a proof-reading task. Crowding assessed by the number of passengers on the train and also the number of passengers around the participant. Carriage and seat density. Found density of the train care did not affect the levels of stress whereas seat density near to the passenger affected both self-reported stress and levels of cortisol in saliva. Therefore, it is the personal space intrusions around the passenger and not on the train generally that lead to increased stress. Psychological measures: self-report questionnaires (Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Friedman and Rosenman, 1974) Holmes and Rahe, 1967 The SRRS produces quantitative date. 43 life events are listed (e.g. loss of job). The person choses which events have happened to them over the past 12 months. Each event has a score associated with it that the person adds up at the end to get their stress scores. The higher the score, the higher the stress levels. 6(a) Friedman and Rosenman, 1974 Believed the causes of stress come from a combination of events in a person’s life as well as the type of personality they have. Type A personality are more likely to experience events as stressful compared to Type B. Type As are controlling, high achieving and competitive, whereas Type Bs are non-competitive, non-controlling and work more slowly. The aim of their study was to investigate the link between type A personality, stress and coronary heart disease. They did an 8½ year longitudinal study with 3,000 healthy men between ages 39–59. They were assessed to determine their personality type, and then followed up throughout the 8½ years. The men were split into two groups, depending on whether they were assessed as Type A or non-Type A. More than twice as many Type As developed coronary heart disease during the study compared to the non-Type A (Type Bs) – 70% of CHD was Type A and 30% was Type B. The researchers believed that Type As are more likely to suffer stress due to their personality type and therefore develop more health problems as time passes. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 6(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about measuring stress, 10 including a discussion about self-reports. • Named issue – self-reports Two types of self-reports were used – the SRRS and the Type A/B personality measure. Both of these produce quantitative data but can be open to social desirability as well as demand characteristics. The person completing it may not want to admit certain life events (e.g. trouble with the law or sexual difficulties) due to embarrassment. They may also not recall events that have occurred during the past year. Both were done as questionnaires rather than interviews so can be done more confidentially and there is an increased likelihood of honesty from participants in a questionnaire. A range of other issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Generalisability • Usefulness (application of psychology to everyday life) • Longitudinal vs snapshot • Evaluation of field method for studies • Strengths and weaknesses of measuring the dependent variable of stress (e.g. validity and reliability) • Strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Mark scheme

7(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘norming’ stage of group development by 2 Tuckman (1965). Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: This is the third stage of Tuckman’s group development model. At this stage the members of the group feel part of the team and begin to realise they can work together to achieve goals. (1) At the norming stage the team members begin to feel like a separate department and the team begins to work well on work tasks they are given. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the theory of team roles in organisations proposed by Belbin 4 (1981). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Belbin identifies nine roles within a team – plant (creative problem solvers), specialist (skill and knowledge specialists), monitor evaluator (strategic thinkers), shaper (risk takers and thrive on pressure), implementer (turn ideas into practical action), teamworker (work together and avoid friction within team), resource investigator (explore opportunities for the team), coordinator (good chairperson for the team), and completer finisher (good at finding errors and finishing projects on time). OR Belbin identified three categories of team roles Action-oriented roles – team members who put new ideas into practice, ensure tasks are completed on time and challenge the team to get better. People-oriented roles – team members who act as leaders, encourage opportunities and seek outside opportunities. Thought-oriented roles – team members who analyse, present new ideas and provide specialist skills. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Discuss the validity of Belbin’s theory of team roles. 6 Discussion points could include: • Holistic theory which increases validity of theory • Self-reports – evaluation of the validity of the Belbin Team Inventory and whether this is a valid measure for Belbin’s theory of team roles, e.g. criterion validity – theory of team roles is backed up by the Belbin Team Inventory which has good criterion validity (includes self-report by employee and observation by co-worker) • Temporal validity – low as created in 1981 • Ecological validity – some companies include less than nine workers but Belbin did take this into account in his theory. • Generalisability. e.g. Belbin’s theory may lack some temporal validity as it is from 1981 and the world of business has changed considerably in the last 39 years. Business has become more specialised, competitive and has changed due to the internet. It may be that businesses no longer need all of these roles fulfilled within the organisation but can get some done by companies elsewhere. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss at least two points regarding validity. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one point about validity in detail or two or more in less detail. • Candidates will provide a good explanation. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Mark scheme

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work 8 (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, types of rewards systems, non- monetary rewards). Motivators at work, including the following: • intrinsic and extrinsic motivation • types of rewards systems: pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance- related pay • non-monetary rewards: praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is where the employee’s work is driven by an internal desire to succeed in order to achieve internal goals. An employee may work hard in order to feel good about meeting a personal target. Extrinsic motivation is where the employee’s work is driven by a desire to have external goals met such as pay, promotion and bonuses. Types of rewards systems: pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance- related pay Pay is the amount given to an employee for their work. This could be paid hourly or on an annual salary. Some jobs involve receiving tips or benefits (e.g. use of the gym). Bonuses are given to employees at a certain time of year and are generally a recognition of hard work or achieving certain sales goals of the company. Many receive end of year bonuses as a percentage of the company profits. Profit sharing is where a company shares out its profits amongst all employees (this can be done on a sliding scale with those higher up the organisation receiving more of the profits). It is different to bonuses where a goal must be achieved first. Performance-related pay is where targets are set for a member of staff and in order to achieve a higher rate of pay these targets must be met within an agreed time frame. Targets can also be set for the whole team rather than each individual member of the team. Everyone’s pay is then linked to whether the team achieves their targets. All of the above can be linked to extrinsic motivation. Non-monetary rewards: praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging These are not tangible but can make the employee feel better about their job and be more motivated to work hard. Praise can be both public and private. An employee may be thanked for their hard work in front of the rest of the staff. Respect is where the employee is treated with dignity and care by their employees. It could be via supporting an employee in a dispute with a customer or sending flowers when someone is in the hospital. Recognition is very similar to praise but could also involve a non-monetary reward of some sort. Many companies offer employee of the month or recognise employees when they get positive customer feedback. Empowerment is a feeling that an employee is trusted to do a job well without constant monitoring by their employers. This might involve working from home or being left to complete a project without excessive check-ins from the employer. It could also be providing on-the-job training to help the employee be more effective or even get a promotion. 8(a) Sense of belonging is feeling as an employee that you fit into the company and are valued by your employer as well as your co-workers. Many companies organise social events for their staff and may even sponsor various events and team building exercises. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work 10 (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, types of rewards systems, non- monetary rewards), including a discussion about determinism. • Named issue – Determinism Deterministic nature of theories about motivators at work. These theories do suggest it is the employer who is providing the feelings of motivation at work (via pay or non-monetary rewards) and therefore this is what causes the motivation in the employee. This is deterministic. It does not recognise individual differences and that some members of staff may be more motivated to work hard whether they get these external rewards or not, therefore showing free will. A range of other issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Reductionist or holistic nature of theories about motivators at work • Individual/situational debate of theories about motivators at work • Effectiveness and appropriateness of theories about motivators at work (including a discussion of cost) • Cultural bias/appropriateness of these theories about motivators at work. • Individual differences. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.