Psychology 9990/43 October/November 2020: question paper and mark scheme

Mark scheme

1 The case study of little Albert An experimenter made a loud noise behind little Albert who jumped, gasped and raised his arms. The second time the experimenter did this, Albert trembled and almost cried. The third time, Albert cried suddenly. So the experimenter had shown that an emotional situation in the laboratory could produce fear and crying in a child. 1(a) Outline the psychological explanation of phobias on which this case 2 study is based. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • Syllabus: explanations of phobias: behavioural (classical conditioning, Watson, 1920) • Outline of the behavioural approach and the basics of classical conditioning, perhaps writing about the UCS > CR, etc. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer e.g. identification. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 1(b) Suggest one reason why this case study could be considered 2 unethical. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • Psychological harm (1 mark): Albert was taught to be afraid; it made the boy cry (2 marks). • Informed consent: Albert could not give consent (but his nurse could). • No right to withdraw and no debrief. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 1(c)(i) Suggest one generalisation that can be made from this case study. 2 Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • The explanation of learning, i.e. classical conditioning (1 mark) Albert’s phobia of associating animals with loud noises could be the way in which many people develop a fear of animals. • The process of association; how phobias can be learned. • Generalisations from one animal to others. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example related to this study. 1(c)(ii) Suggest two reasons why the findings of this case study cannot be 4 generalised. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • Albert was the only participant and so generalising from one child is problematic • Albert was claimed to have mental impairment • The study explains one phobia but might not explain all phobias Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example x2 1(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of conducting research on 5 phobias in a laboratory. You should include a conclusion in your answer. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Advantages: • A laboratory experiment has an IV, DV and controls. • Laboratory experiments are reductionist so one variable can be isolated and studied. • Participants know they are taking part in a study (so give consent but not informed consent). • IV can be studied precisely using scientific equipment. • Extraneous situational variables can be controlled. Disadvantages: • Phobias usually apply to events in the real world and so studies should be conducted in the real world (rather than in a laboratory). • It might be reductionist to isolate variables to study when many other variables that are controlled in a laboratory might contribute to the phobia. • Participants might respond to demand characteristics. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion. Section A: Stimulus question psychology and consumer behaviour

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2 Wansink et al. (2005) investigated the effect of food names. Cathy: ‘I think I’ll have Traditional Cajun Red Beans with Rice and Grandma’s Zucchini Cookies for lunch today. What will you have?’ Julia: ‘I think I’ll have Grilled Chicken and Chocolate Pudding.’ 2(a) Identify the two conditions of the independent variable (IV) in the study 2 by Wansink et al. (2005). Answers: • Evocative, descriptive menu names (e.g. Succulent Italian Seafood Filet) and • ‘regular’ names (e.g. seafood filet). Marks: 1 mark for each correct identification. 2(b)(i) Explain how the conditions of the IV were rotated (counterbalanced). 2 Answer: Quote from study: ‘During the Tuesday and Friday lunch of each of the six test weeks, two of the items were presented with their regular name (e.g., grilled chicken); two items were presented with a descriptive name; and two items were not offered. For each of the next two weeks, the items and the conditions were systematically rotated until all menu items were presented in all conditions. The rotation was repeated in weeks four through six.’ Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration. 2(b)(ii) Suggest why the conditions of the IV were rotated (counterbalanced). 2 Most likely answer: (other appropriate responses to be credited): To control for extraneous variables: ‘The rotation was planned in order to minimise any unexpected variations that might affect either preferences or participation (such as blizzards, religious holidays or game days)’. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer (e.g. as a control). 1 mark for elaboration/ example (e.g. as a control to avoid confounding, because changes in the weather might affect food choice. 2(c) The participants were asked open-ended questions, including 4 ‘Comment on the food’. Suggest one strength and one weakness of using open-ended questions in this study. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Strengths • participants can say what they think about their experience (give the reasons why they made a certain food choice) • detailed and in-depth data can be gathered (researchers knowing more than just ‘seafood filet’). Weaknesses • participants may not give honest answers (may say ‘homestyle chicken’ to please the researchers; because that is what they think they should say). • the responses may be misunderstood or mis-categorised by the researcher (saying ‘because I like seafood’ doesn’t help because it can apply to both Succulent Italian Seafood Filet and seafood filet). • the researchers may not be able to write the answers quickly enough to be word-for-word. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example x2 2(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of conducting field 5 experiments to investigate the effect of food names on consumers. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Advantages: • A field experiment has an IV, DV and controls. • Often participants do not know they are taking part in a study and so behave more naturally (in this study questionnaires were given after food choices had been made). • Most consumer behaviour takes place in the real world and so studies should be conducted in the real world (rather than in a laboratory). Disadvantages: • A field experiment may have variables that are more difficult to control than a laboratory experiment. • Often participants do not know they have taken part in a study at all so there is no consent (in this study there was because they were asked to complete questionnaires). • It may be reductionist to isolate variables to study (i.e. the IV) when many other variables that are controlled may contribute to consumer behaviour as a whole. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion. Section A: Stimulus question psychology and health

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3 Munchausen syndrome is an extreme type of factitious disorder. The case study by Aleem and Ajarim (1995) describes a patient with Munchausen syndrome, who first appeared to have an immune deficiency. 3(a) Explain what is meant by ‘factitious disorder’. 2 Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Quote from study: ‘Factitious disorders are characterized by physical or psychological symptoms that are intentionally produced or feigned in order to assume the sick role. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example 3(b) Identify two essential and two supporting diagnostic features of 4 Munchausen syndrome, according to Aleem and Ajarim. Definitive answers: Quote from study: Essential features • Pathologic lying (pseudologia fantastica) • Peregrination (traveling or wandering) • Recurrent, feigned or simulated illness Supporting features Borderline and/or antisocial personality traits; Deprivation in childhood; Equanimity for diagnostic procedures; Equanimity for treatments or operations; Evidence of self-induced physical signs; Knowledge of or experience in a medical field; Most likely to be male; Multiple hospitalizations; Multiple scars (usually abdominal); Police record; Unusual or dramatic presentation. Marks: 1 mark for each correct answer x4. 3(c)(i) Describe the result of one named physical examination used in this 2 study. Most likely answer: Quote from study • Physical examination was consistent with bilateral femoral nerve palsy and investigations (ultrasound, computed tomographic [CT] scan) were suggestive of hematoma. • Anticoagulation was stopped and surgical evacuation was carried out and she recovered well except for residual partial left femoral nerve palsy. • She was also investigated for amenorrhea and it was suggested to be hypothalamic in origin • Physical examination during the current admission revealed an intelligent young female, afebrile, with normal pulse and blood pressure. • There were multiple scars over the abdominal wall and there was a tender, hot and indurated area (4 x 5 cm) over the lateral aspect of the right breast. There were two small tender lymph nodes palpable in the right axilla. The rest of the examination was normal. Marks: 1 mark for identification; 1 mark for result/finding. Simple answer: ‘blood pressure’ (1 mark) ‘it was found to be normal’ (1 mark) 3(c)(ii) Suggest one advantage of a physical examination over a clinical 2 interview, using an example from this study. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • A physical examination often uses ‘scientific equipment’ which gathers objective data. A clinical interview gathers subjective data about the experiences of the patient. • The physical examination cannot lie; a patient can. • A physical examination is done by the medically qualified person who knows what to look for. A clinical interview of the patient’s experience may lead the interviewer/medical practitioner to draw incorrect conclusions. Marks: 1 mark basic answer, 2 marks detailed answer/elaboration or use of example. 3(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of case studies to gather 5 data on factitious disorders like Munchausen syndrome. You should include a conclusion in your answer. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Advantages: • The essential features of factitious disorders are likely to apply to other people. • A case study is a detailed investigation into one ‘thing’, the factitious disorder. • Unique cases can be understood which adds to knowledge about the disorder. • If many case studies produce similar results, it is possible to generalise. Disadvantages: • No standardised measurement can be taken for everyone with the disorder. • Various methodologies are often used: interviews, questionnaires, tests (psychometric, projective and physiological) which may not reveal anything / be useful. • Individual differences (or ‘everyone is unique’) in disorders means that what is applied to one person cannot always be applied to others. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion. Section A: Stimulus question psychology and organisations

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4 Hackman and Oldham (1976) used several different ways to collect data for their job characteristics model: • the self-report Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) was administered to groups of employees • supervisors and the researchers completed the Job Rating Form • members of management were asked to rate the work performance of each worker • absence data was obtained from company records. 4(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘job characteristics model’. 2 Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Quote from study: the conditions under which individuals will become internally motivated to perform effectively on their jobs. The model focuses on the interaction among three classes of variables: • the psychological states of employees that must be present for internally motivated work behaviour to develop; • the characteristics of jobs that can create these psychological states; and • the attributes of individuals that determine how positively a person will respond to a complex and challenging job. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer 1 mark for elaboration/example. 4(b) Outline two psychological states identified by this model. 4 Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Quote from study: The three psychological states • experience meaningfulness of the work. (The degree to which the individual experiences the job as one which is generally meaningful, valuable, and worthwhile.) • experience responsibility for the outcomes of the work. (The degree to which the individual feels personally accountable and responsible for the results of the work he or she does.) • knowledge of the results of the work activities. (The degree to which the individual knows and understands, on a continuous basis, how effectively he or she is performing the job.) Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example (such as what is in brackets). x2 4(c)(i) Suggest one strength of using absence data from company records. 2 Most likely answers • Company records are ‘official’. • Company records are ‘objective’. If a person has been absent then it is fact. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 4(c)(ii) Suggest one weakness of using members of management to rate each 2 worker. Most likely answers • Management may not know the worker or understand the work the worker performs. • Management may have a ‘hidden agenda’. • Management may not record accurately, because they are not necessarily trained. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 4(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-reports to 5 gather data on job satisfaction. You should include a conclusion in your answer. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Advantages • Asking people directly means that participants are given the opportunity to express their feelings and explain their behaviour rather than the researcher trying to work out reasons for their behaviour from other methods • Relatively large numbers of participants can be done relatively easily. Questionnaires are easy to replicate. Same for telephone interviews. • Data can be qualitative, but may also be quantitative depending on type of question Disadvantages • Some participants may provide socially desirable responses; not give truthful answers; respond to demand characteristics. • Closed/fixed choice questions may force people into choosing answers that do not reflect their true opinion and therefore may lower the validity. • Researchers have to be careful about use of leading questions; it could affect the validity of the data collected. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion. Section B: Design question (a)=10 marks, (b)=8 marks

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5(a) Design a study to investigate phobias of horses in boys. 10 Marks: use generic levels of response Design a study question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is: any appropriate method. Typical features: • Experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design. • Observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling frame, number of observers. • Questionnaires/Interviews: type, setting, example questions. Scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. 5(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). Note: If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: explanations of phobias: behavioural (classical conditioning, Watson, 1920), psychoanalytic (Freud, 1909), biomedical/genetic (Ost, 1992), cognitive (DiNardo et al., 1988) Psychological: study of little Hans: psychoanalytic (Freud, 1909) is likely to feature, but the question allows any other explanation, as listed above, to be used as relevant psychological knowledge. Note: 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

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6(a) Design a laboratory experiment to investigate the effect of ‘eye 10 magnets’ when choosing an item of food on a menu. Marks: use generic levels of response Design a study question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is: experiment. Typical features: Experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. Logically candidates will have an ‘eye-magnet’ condition and a non-eye magnet condition (IV) and using eye tracking compare the two movement patterns, the DV. Controls should be applied: one type of magnet such as font, controlling colour, graphics and borders. 6(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 experiment is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). Note: If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: menu design psychology – eye movement patterns, framing and common menu mistakes (Pavesic, 2005) Psychological: Quote from study: This is the typical eye movement over a three panel, two-fold menu; however, the pattern of eye movement is not fixed and can be altered and directed by ‘eye magnets’. Eye magnets are little graphic techniques that will attract the eye and guest’s attention. Some of the best examples are graphic boxes around menu items. Gaze motion patterns will vary according to the page format, graphics, layout and number of folds in the menu. Different styles of type fonts can be used as eye magnets. The use of colour in the font, graphics, and borders can also be used to attract attention. Note: 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

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7(a) Design a longitudinal study to investigate whether stress has a 10 negative effect on health. Marks: use generic levels of response Design a study question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is: longitudinal study. Any method can be used, provided that the data gathered is over a period of time. Typical features: • Experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design. • Observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling frame, number of observers. • Questionnaires/Interviews: type, setting, example questions. Scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. 7(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). Note: If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: physiology of stress and effects on health: the GAS Model (Selye, 1936) Psychological: Selye’s third stage is exhaustion. The body cannot remain in a ‘heightened state’ and at some point, one or more parts of the system will break down. Effects can be high blood pressure, a haemorrhagic stroke; a myocardial infarction (‘heart attack’) and minor effects such as a stomach ulcer. Note: 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

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8(a) Design a study to investigate how much time is spent managing group 10 conflict by people at different levels of management. Marks: use generic levels of response Design a study question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is: any appropriate method. Typical features: • Experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design. • Observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling frame, number of observers. • Questionnaires/Interviews: type, setting, example questions. Scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. 8(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). Note: If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: Group conflict: managing group conflict (Thomas, 1976) Psychological: The table below, item 1, shows the level of management and the percentage time dealing with conflict. Note: 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above. Section C: Evaluation question = 12 marks

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9 ‘Exposure and response prevention is always successful in treating 12 obsessive-compulsive and related disorders.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in table C. Syllabus: treatment and management of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: exposure and response prevention (Lehmkuhl et al., 2008) Most likely (any other appropriate responses should be credited): For: • Lehmkhul et al. successfully treated Jason using ERP; If one can be treated then so can all. • ‘Basic’ treatment can successfully be adapted to meet individual needs. • If ERP works with children then it should work with adults; Jason was 12 years old. • ERP involves facing fears step-by-step so no-one should ever have a problem (unlike flooding). Against: • Lehmkhul et al. successfully treated Jason, but this is one child. Can’t generalise from one person. • It was a case study and Jason was unique. He also had autism. • No therapy works for everyone. Alternatives may be more appropriate. Section C: Evaluation question = 12 marks

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10 ‘Determinism: retail store architecture controls how shoppers behave.’ 12 To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in table C. Syllabus: A2 issue of determinism. Also relevant: retail store architecture (Turley and Milliman, 2000); leisure environments (Finlay et al., 2006); store interior layout (Vrechopoulos, 2004) Most likely (any other appropriate responses should be credited): Determines: • This is architectural determinism. It does influence customers. • Finlay et al. studied the effect on gambling of different gambling environments. • Vrechopoulos found the effect on shopper behaviour of different store layout designs. • Turley and Milliman report on various ‘atmospheres’: lighting, smell, etc. that influence purchase decisions. Does not determine: • People can exercise their free-will and make a choice about the environment they choose to shop in. • The Friedman casino design focused on the product (machine) believing it to be more important than the ‘atmosphere’. • Atmospheres may attract a person to a store/mall, but it is factors associated with the product (such as cost) that determines whether people will make a purchase. Section C: Evaluation question = 12 marks

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11 ‘All patients would rather disclose to a computer than a human, in 12 order to be diagnosed.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in table C. Syllabus: patient and practitioner diagnosis and style: disclosure of information (Robinson and West, 1992) Most likely (any other appropriate responses should be credited): Computer: • A computer may be good at diagnosing simple or common illnesses. • People may prefer to give symptoms to a computer because the computer will not judge them. • People may prefer a computer for embarrassing problems/ illnesses. • Using a computer is simple, quick and does not take the time of a busy practitioner. Human: • Humans may have experience to deal with ambiguous symptoms/ rare illnesses that a computer may not be programmed to do. • People might prefer to give symptoms to a computer but they would wish a practitioner to make the diagnosis. • People may prefer to give symptoms to a computer but would they trust the treatment programme prescribed by a computer. • A human can chat, be patient-centred, whereas a computer cannot. Section C: Evaluation question = 12 marks

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12 ‘Job satisfaction can only be measured effectively using closed 12 questions.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in table C. Syllabus: measuring job satisfaction: including all three dash points Most likely (any other appropriate responses should be credited): For: • Closed questions provide respondents with possible answers making answering easier. • Closed questions will result in a final score which will place the respondent into a category (high, average, low, etc). • Closed questions can result in quantitative data, used for comparisons. Against: • Closed questions may be ambiguous and not fit the answer choices (want to respond ‘it depends’). • Closed questions gather numbers not any understanding that open- ended questions would provide. • A five- or seven-point scale gives an opt-out mid-point allowing some respondents to score midpoint for all responses.