Psychology 9990/42 October/November 2020: question paper and mark scheme

Mark scheme

1 Miller (2010) proposed impulse control therapy which he developed from his feeling‐state theory of impulse control disorders. This therapy uses what Miller calls the impulse control disorder protocol (ICDP), a procedure which uses a modified form of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR). 1(a) Explain what is meant by eye movement desensitisation and 2 reprocessing (EMDR). Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): EMDR treatment involves identifying the trauma and the negative feelings and beliefs associated with the trauma. Eye movements are then used to process the trauma and feelings and install positive beliefs and feelings. Originally used to treat PTSD. 1 mark for basic answer (e.g. involves eye movements when treating) 2 marks for elaboration/example. 1(b) Outline the procedure used in impulse control therapy, including 4 reference to EMDR. Steps summarised from Table 1 of the study by Miller: 1 Obtain history, frequency, and context of compulsive behaviour. 2 Identify the specific aspect of the compulsive behaviour that has the most emotional intensity associated with it. 3 Identify the specific positive feeling linked with the compulsive behaviour, along with its rating on the PFS. 4 Locate and identify any physical sensations created by the positive feelings. 5 The client combines an image of performing the (a) compulsive behaviour, (b) the positive feeling, and (c) physical sensations. 6 Eye movement sets are performed (i.e. EMDR) while the client focuses on material (e.g., memory, feeling, image, sensation, thought) that was elicited during the prior set. NB this is the procedure in the first session, outlined by Miller. Also, credit anything referring to: 7 Homework 8 Second session: (steps 9–12) involving re-evaluations repeating steps 2– 8 if needed 1–2 marks for partial detail. 3–4 marks for detail/elaboration/example. NB: full details are not expected, summaries are. 1(c)(i) Suggest one similarity between impulse control therapy and imaginal 2 desensitisation. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • both ICT and ID are treatments for ICDs; • both ICT and ID involve a therapist conducting the treatment; • both ICT and ID require the patient to imagine exposure to the trauma; 1 mark for basic answer (as above). 1 mark for elaboration/example. 1(c)(ii) Suggest one difference between impulse control therapy and imaginal 2 desensitisation. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • ICT involves eye movements; ID involves progressive muscle relaxation (2 marks); • ICT involves eye movements ID does not = 1 mark; • ID involves progressive muscle relaxation ICT does not = 1 mark; 1 mark statement for one side + 1 mark for statement about other side (example as above). NB: Must give both sides to score 2 marks. 1(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self-report data from 5 people with addictions. You should include a conclusion in your answer. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Strengths • Asking people directly means that participants are given the opportunity to express their feelings and explain their behaviour rather than the researcher trying to work out reasons for their behaviour from other methods; • Relatively large numbers of participants can be involved relatively easily. Questionnaires are easy to replicate. Same for telephone interviews; • Data can be qualitative, but may also be quantitative depending on type of question; Weaknesses • Some participants may provide socially desirable responses; not give truthful answers; respond to demand characteristics; • Closed/fixed choice questions may force people into choosing answers that do not reflect their true opinion and therefore may lower the validity; • Researchers have to be careful about use of leading questions; it could affect the validity of the data collected. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion.

Mark scheme

2 The success of the disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) technique (Kardes et al., 2007) Experiment 1 shows that the DTR technique increases retail sales in a supermarket setting. Experiment 2 shows that the DTR technique increases the willingness to pay to join a student interest group. Experiment 3 shows that the DTR technique increases student support for a tuition fee increase. 2(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘disrupt-then-reframe’ technique. 2 Most likely answers: From study: The disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) influence technique involves confusing consumers with a disruptive message and then reducing ambiguity by reframing the message. For example, quote from study ‘the price for note cards is 300 pennies’ (disruption/confusing message) then ‘that’s $3. It’s a bargain’ (reframe) 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 2(b)(i) Explain how an independent measures design was used in 2 Experiment 1. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Quote from study: the confederate (acting as sales personnel) either used: • the DTR technique OR • employed a reframe-only (or request-only portion of the DTR technique) control script. This means that different people were randomly allocated to either the DTR or the re-frame only control condition. 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 2(b)(ii) Suggest why this experimental design was used, rather than one other 2 experimental design. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Using a repeated measures design would (i) alert any customer to the different techniques (they may become suspicious) and so the second technique would produce either no or invalid results. (ii) There might be carry- over effects from the first to the second condition and again the result would not be valid. 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. NB must be linked to study for 2 marks. 2(c) Suggest two advantages of conducting field experiments, using 4 examples from this study. Most likely answers (other appropriate responses to be credited): • The setting is natural/high ecological validity, e.g. the study is conducted in a supermarket; • The participant behaves naturally because they do not know they are participating in a study e.g. each of the confederates introduced himself or herself at a sales stand and the offer (buy candy at a special rate) and then proceeded with the appropriate sales script; • The task/request is congruous with the setting e.g. confederates made a request (of the participant) to buy a box of candy at a special rate; • The sample is more likely to be representative (of age and sex), e.g. people shopping in a supermarket: e.g. (43 males, 104 females) participated in the study. The sample had a mean age of 46 years; • The sample may be larger than in a laboratory, e.g. 147 persons participated. 1 mark for each correct advantage and 1 mark for each correct example from the study × 2. 2(d) Discuss the ethics of using the disrupt-then-reframe technique to sell a 5 product. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): For: • Sales people try to sell, and this is just one technique available from a wide range; • There are other techniques which involve ‘psychological tricks’ and this is no better or worse; • Can walk away if they are not happy or feel they have been manipulated in any way; Against: • Participants are ‘tricked’ (deceived) and this is unethical; • Maybe all sales techniques should be reviewed for ‘ethics’ such as purchase quantity decisions; • A stooge may bias results because of their appearance, their manner, or because of some other feature; • This is not a psychological study, which protects participants, but it is real life, with often little or no protection. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion.

Mark scheme

3 Fox et al. (1987) used token economy with miners. 3(a) Give two conclusions from Fig. 3.1. 2 Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • The number of accidents reduced when token economy was applied; • The costs due to accidents reduced following baseline; 1 mark for each correct statement. NB accept findings for conclusions. NB each conclusion must be different, not variation of same. 3(b) Outline two measures of safety behaviour used to gather data in the 4 study by Fox et al. (1987). Most likely answer: Quote from study: Four kinds of data were selected to represent most of what is important about safety at the mines. Two of these were traditional safety statistics: • the number of job-related injuries that cause a worker to be absent from work 1 or more days; • the total number of days absent from work because of injuries. Both measures are typically expressed in terms of a constant number (e.g. 1 000 000 of person-hours): • Frequency Rate, is considered to be an index of the frequency of more important injuries, whereas the second measure; • Severity Rate, is considered to be an index of the seriousness of injuries. Also credit: ‘In addition, direct costs of injuries and accidents are considered to reflect verifiable costs of accidents and injuries. In the present case, direct costs included those incurred for compensation insurance, medical care for injured workers, and repairing damaged equipment. These figures were proportioned to the yearly number of person-hours worked and adjusted for U.S. Department of Commerce (1971–1986).’ 1 mark for identification of term. 1 mark for elaboration/outline of term × 2. 3(c) Explain two reasons why the decrease in costs between phase 1 and 4 phase 2 may not be due to the token economy. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Quote from study: ‘There are three relatively straightforward threats to the validity of the conclusions that the token economies produced the improvements in safety data’: • the possibility that the contingencies may have caused workers not to report accidents and injuries; • the risk that natural variability might include some improvement even if the interventions did not occur; • the number of days lost from work and the number of lost-time injuries during the baseline period at the Shirley Basin Mine. These decreases, had they continued, might have produced improvements in safety data at that mine independently of the introduction of the token economy. 1 mark basic statement. 1 mark elaboration/description × 2. 3(d) Discuss whether the findings of this study can be generalised. You 5 should consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Can: • the principles of positive reinforcement (tokens) to make a behaviour more likely can be generalised; • the two mines were real-life situations not an ‘artificial’ laboratory experiment or simulation; • if this strategy works in mines, potentially dangerous working conditions, then it should work in situations that are less dangerous; • Large sample size: mine 1 (197 > 606 > 214) mine 2 (450–501); Cannot: • two mines is just one form of occupation and it doesn’t mean that it will apply to all occupations; • the mines are located in one country whose workers might be motivated by tokens. In other countries safety might have much higher priority in workers and tokens not needed; • the Fox et al. study is thirty years old, so the findings may not generalise to workers/occupations in 2020. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion.

Mark scheme

4 Fiedler (1967) proposed a contingency theory. Leader member relations: good or poor Task structure: high or low Position power: strong or weak. 4(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘contingency theory’ of leadership. 2 Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Contingency theories believe that the effectiveness of leadership depends (i.e. is contingent) upon the situation, and there are numerous factors, such as the nature of the task, leader's personality e.g. relationship-oriented or task- oriented and make-up of the group being led. 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 4(b)(i) Explain how Fiedler used the Least-Preferred Co-worker (LPC) 2 questionnaire. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Fielder used the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale, a questionnaire with 16 negative through to positive items, where leaders are asked about the person with whom they least prefer to work. One item: Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly. This determines whether the leader is relationship-oriented (high LPC score) or task-oriented (low LPC score). 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 4(b)(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using this questionnaire with workers. 2 NB: also accept answers for the question ‘Suggest one disadvantage if this questionnaire was used by workers’. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): • a least preferred co-worker should never know they have been ‘chosen’ as the LPC, but if they found out or other workers found out then it could lead a change in attitude toward that worker and possibly lead to bullying; • asking anyone about the least preferred co-worker isn’t a very nice thing to do; • If workers used the LPC rather than leaders then workers may give more positive ratings to their co-workers; also possible is that more negative ratings might be given. 1 mark for basic answer. 1 mark for elaboration/example. 4(c) Explain how one alternative theory of leadership considers individual 4 differences between workers. Most likely answers: The situational leadership approach argues that no single leadership style best fits all situations. Successful leaders are those who can adapt their leadership style to the group they are attempting to lead. Hersey and Blanchard suggested style is determined by leadership style (the way in which a leader takes into account individual differences in workers) and the maturity level of workers/followers (hence individual differences): Leadership styles (four styles) – Telling, Selling, Participating and Delegating: • telling (directing): high task (giving specific direction), low relationship; • selling (coaching): high task (explaining task direction), high relationship; • participating (supporting): low task, high relationship (sharing task decisions); • delegating: low task, low relationship (workers make task decisions); Maturity levels of workers (four levels) – High, Moderate (2 levels) and Low: • high follower maturity and high task readiness = delegating style (workers capable and willing); • low follower maturity and low task readiness = telling style (workers lack capability and are unwilling); • low to moderate readiness = participating style (workers capable but unwilling/insecure); • moderate to high readiness = selling style (workers lack capability but are willing). 1–2 marks for basic answer (general sentence or two) 3–4 marks for elaboration/example (e.g. using terminology/theory as shown above and 4 mark answers must show how the theory relates to individual differences). 4(d) Discuss the usefulness of theories of leadership to the management of 5 an organisation. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): Useful: • if the company owner can identify the best leadership style for their workers then the best person for the job can be appointed; • if a leader (or manager) knows about styles then they can adapt their style to be a better leader/manager; • if leaders are more effective then this has positive benefits for the workers perhaps resulting in more cohesive worker relationships; • if leaders are more effective then production levels can be increased; Less useful: • theories needs to be shown to be effective in practise and not all theories apply and so are less useful; • a leader/manager may have read about a theory and try to change style to be something they are not. This can have consequences for both leader and worker; • a leader may try to impose a style that isn’t appropriate onto the way in which workers are treated. This would result in job dissatisfaction; • categorising workers into four maturity levels (for example) is good, but not all workers fit into just one category so the explanation is less useful. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a ‘decision reached by reasoning’ and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however detailed) and related to the question up to 4 max. 2 marks max for two strengths/weaknesses unrelated to the question. 1 mark for conclusion.

Mark scheme

5(a) Design a study using an observation to investigate the characteristics of 10 addiction in people with kleptomania. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is observation. Specific features: Observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling, number of observers. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. 5(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). NB If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: characteristics of ICDs and non-substance addictive disorder; types: kleptomania, pyromania (Burton et al., 2012) and gambling disorder. Psychological: • characteristics of addiction (Griffiths) include: salience, euphoria, tolerance, conflict, withdrawal and relapse and these should feature in the answer; • kleptomanic behaviours as illustrated by (some of) the above features. Note that ‘increase of tension before/release after’ may also be observed rather than sensations of euphoria. NB 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

Mark scheme

6(a) Design a study to investigate the effect of musical style on spending in 10 different types of restaurant. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is any appropriate method. Typical features: • experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design; • observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling, number of observers; • questionnaires/Interviews: type, setting, example questions. Scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. NB North et al. used only one type of restaurant; this design must use several so IV etc., will be different. 6(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). NB If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: music in restaurants (North et al., 2003). Psychological: North et al. played classical, pop and no music (IVs) in a restaurant for three weeks. Many variables were controlled, such as menu, temperature, etc., DV was amount of money spent on food and drink. NB 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

Mark scheme

7(a) Design a study using an interview to investigate the causes of stress at 10 work in nurses. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is interview. Specific features: Interviews: type, setting, example questions. Scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. 7(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). NB If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: causes of stress: work (Chandola et al. 2008). Psychological: Chandola et al. studied people working for the UK Government and from 1985–2004 gathered data by questionnaire and clinical examination. It was found that work stress was associated with lack of exercise and poor diet, with being younger (under 50 years). NB 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

Mark scheme

8(a) Design a study to investigate which type of ‘need for achievement’ is 10 most likely to motivate workers. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (a). Additional: Candidates should design the study showing evidence of design features appropriate to the named method. The named method is any appropriate method. Typical features: • experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design; • observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling, number of observers; • questionnaires/Interviews: type, setting, example questions. Scoring/rating scale, analysis of responses. General features of research methodology: sampling technique & sample, type of data, ethics, reliability, validity, data analysis. 8(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your 8 study is based. Marks: use generic levels of response ‘Design a study’ question part (b). NB If only methodological or psychological explanation is provided max 5 marks. Candidates are expected to explain the reasons for the suggested design in part (a). Explanation should be both psychological and methodological. Psychological to include appropriate theory or research. Additional: candidates are expected to justify their decisions or evidence presented regarding the design made in answer to question part (a). Syllabus: achievement motivation (McClelland, 1965). Psychological: McClelland outlines three needs: Need for achievement – the need to get a job done, to master a task, to be successful. Need for affiliation – the need to be liked and accepted by other people; Need for power – being influential in the lives of others. Need to avoid failure is also a possibility. NB 2 marks max if psychological knowledge is not related to answer. Methodological: explanation of method using general and specific features as above.

Mark scheme

9 ‘Medical techniques, such as drugs, can treat all patients with 12 depression effectively.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in Table C. Syllabus: treatment and management of depression; biological: chemical/drugs (MAO, SSRIs). Most likely answer (any other appropriate responses should be credited): For: • the use of drugs is quick and easy – simply swallow a pill and nothing else; • drugs can help by relieving the symptoms of depression; • drugs do work. Kahn et al. (1986) found benzodiazepines, for example, were more effective than a placebo; • drugs do not need relaxation techniques, cognitive therapies or any other time-consuming exercises; Against: • drugs can remove the cause of depression (if the cause is biochemical), otherwise do not cure, merely make the symptoms easier to live with; • drugs are addictive and so are not good for treating a person long-term; • drugs may be costly; • alternative cognitive-behavioural techniques can be used such as those by Beck and Ellis.

Mark scheme

10 ‘Determinism: Retail ambience may affect shoppers’ emotional states, 12 but does not determine their reason to shop.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in Table C. Syllabus: models of effects of ambience: pleasure-arousal and cognition- emotion. Most likely answer (any other appropriate responses should be credited): Determines: • this is architectural determinism. It does influence the emotional state of the consumer, which in turn causes behavioural changes, both positive (approach, buy more, stay longer etc.) and negative (avoid, buy less, leave earlier etc.); • Mehrabian and Russell (1974) propose the Pleasure/Arousal/Dominance (‘PAD’) model, the emotions experienced by shoppers; • Lazarus (1991) A stimulus in the environment/situation can be consciously or unconsciously processed (our appraisal of it) and this leads us to be aroused and experience emotion. This is the cognition- emotion model; • The emotion-cognition model also applies as does Bitner’s ‘serviscape’. Does not determine: • people can exercise their free-will and make a choice about the environment/store they choose to shop in; • there are many other factors that determine people’s emotions rather than just the retail atmosphere (e.g. it is close to home); • atmospheres may attract a person to a store/mall, but it is factors associated with the product (such as cost) that determine whether people will make a purchase.

Mark scheme

11 ‘Physiological measures of stress are much more useful than 12 psychological measures.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in Table C. Syllabus: measures of stress –– physiological measures: recording devices and sample tests (Wang et al., 2005, Evans and Wener, 2007) –– psychological measures: self-report questionnaires (Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Friedman and Rosenman, 1974) Most likely answer (any other appropriate responses should be credited): More useful: • physiological data (e.g. brain activity, hormone, etc.) is objective and not open to bias or opinion by the participant (or misinterpretation by experimenter); • the use of physiological recording devices provide consistent (reliable) measurement, e.g. a sphygmomanometer measures blood pressure on a standard scale; • human physiological functioning is the same in all cultures: a cultural universal. Less useful: • subjective (qualitative) data is important and should not be ignored by researchers; the person can explain how they feel and explain their stress; • physiological data can be correlational and so cause and effect cannot be assumed; • one measure of physiological functioning is reductionist; other measures should be taken also; • physiological measures in isolation from psychological measures mean nothing, e.g. there are many causes of high blood pressure and an explanation is essential.

Mark scheme

12 ‘Situational leadership is irrelevant if the individual leader is a 12 universalist ‘great man or woman’. To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer. Marks: use generic levels of response in Table C. Syllabus: traditional and modern theories of leadership – universalist and behavioural theories; situational leadership (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). Most likely answer (any other appropriate responses should be credited): Irrelevant: • it is claimed that the individual ‘great-person’ leader is born rather than made and is a ‘natural’ leader; • natural leaders will have followers because of their charisma and followers will do anything in support of such leaders; • natural leaders will have insight and do not need training; they can lead in any situation. Their leadership skills are ‘universal’; Against: • universal leaders may have abilities but often do not apply in specific work situations; • many work situations are unique and to be successful specific characteristics of that situation need to be applied; • workers have different needs and attitudes. A situational leader will adapt to get the best out of workers.